Reform of the all-china state university entrance examination policy and educational inequality
https://doi.org/10.24290/1029-3736-2025-31-4-172-193
Abstract
The Nationwide Unified Examination for Admissions to General Universities and Colleges in China, or Gaokao (NECC), is the world’s largest standardized examination, the basis of China’s educational selection system, and an important mechanism for social class mobility in China. It is also an important mechanism for social mobility in China. While achieving formal equity, the Gaokao system has always faced deep-seated institutional contradictions such as unequal distribution of educational resources and opportunities. In this paper, we use literature and data analysis and case analysis to analyze educational equity and inequality of opportunity in the Gaokao system based on the operational mechanism of the Gaokao in China, the design logic of the Gaokao policy, and the history of its change; we explore the role and limitations of the Gaokao system in educational equity and its impact on social mobility; and we reflect on and reveal the challenges that the Gaokao system will face in the future, so as to provide a basis for the construction of a more equitable and theoretical education system. It also reflects on and reveals the challenges it faces in the future in order to provide theoretical and practical references for the construction of a more equitable and reasonable education system.
About the Author
Yang Pei
Lomonosov Moscow State University
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
Pei Yang, Postgraduate Student of Department of Modern Sociology, Faculty of Sociology
1 bldg, 33, Leninskie Gory, Moscow, 119234
References
1. Grubb W.N. The Convergence of Educational Systems and the Role of Vocationalism // Comparative Education Review. 1985. Vol. 29. N 4. P. 526–548.
2. Brunello G. Stratified or Comprehensive? Some Economic Considerations on the Design of Secondary Education // CESifo DICE Report. 2004. N 4. P. 7–10.
3. Rozenberg N.V. Resursnyj potencial sem’i kak faktor uspeshnoj social’noj mobil’nosti molodezhi [Resource potential of the family as a factor in successful social mobility of young people] // Vestnik Tambovskogo universiteta. Seriya: Obshchestvennye nauki. 2017. N 1 (9). URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/resursnyy-potentsial-semi-kak-faktor-uspeshnoy-sotsialnoy-mobilnosti-molodezhi (in Russian).
4. 年普通高等学校招生工作规定. 中华人民共和国教育部. [Regulations on Enrolment of Students in General Colleges and Universities in 2025. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China]. 2025.12.02. URL: http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A15/moe_776/s3258/202502/W020250219375244250249.docx (in Chinese).
5. 教育部考试中心发布《中国高考评价体系》 . 中华人民共和国教育 部 [The Ministry of Education Examination Center released the “China College Entrance Examination Evaluation System”. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China]. 2020.01.07. URL:http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/gzdt_gzdt/s5987/202001/t20200107_414611.html (in Chinese).
6. 上海两高等教育机构试水综合评价录取. 中国教育报&中华人民共和国 教育部 [Shanghai’s two higher education institutions to test the comprehensive evaluation of admission. China Education News & Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China]. 2015.27.06. URL: http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/s5147/201506/t20150629_191527.html (in Chinese).
7. 国务院关于取消非行政许可审批事项的决定. 中华人民共和国中央人民 政府 [Decision of the State Council on Cancellation of Non-Authorised Approval Matters. Central People’s Government of the People’s Republic of China] // Guo Fa. 2015. N 27. 2015.14.05. URL: https://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2015-05/14/content_9749.htm (in Chinese).
8. 关于公布世界一流大学和一流学科建设高校及建设学科名单的通 知. 教育部. 财政部. 国家发展改革委 [Notice on the Announcement of the List of Universities and Disciplines for the Construction of World-Class Universities and First-Class Disciplines. Ministry of Education. Ministry of Finance. National Development and Reform Commission] // Letter of Education and Research. 2017. N 2. 2017.20.09. URL: http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A22/moe_843/201709/t20170921_314942.html (in Chinese).
9. 年各省份高考录取分数线及招生计划情况. 北京师范大学招生办公 室 [2023 Gaokao Admission Score Line and Enrolment Plan by Province . Beijing Normal University Admissions Office]. 2023. URL: https://admission.bnu.edu.cn/zsjhlnfs/edff0e0dcd4c4919be5cbcb568d83d9d.html (in Chinese).
10. 年各省份录取分数线及本科招生计划情况. 青海大学招生办公室 [2023 Gaokao Admission Score Line and Enrolment Plan by Province . Qinghai University Admissions Office] 2023. URL: http://210.27.182.75/zscx/lqxx/#/ (in Chinese).
11. 年各省份录取分数线及本科招生计划情况. 青岛大学本科招生网 [2023 Gaokao Admission Score Line and Enrolment Plan by Province . Qingdao University Undergraduate Admissionse]. 2023. URL: https://zhaosheng.qdu.edu.cn/static/front/qdu/basic/html_web/zsjh.html (in Chinese).
12. “211工程”与“985工程”. 新华社&中华人民共和国教育部 [‘Project 211 and Project 985. Xinhua News Agency & Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China]. 2015.06.11. URL: http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/xw_zt/moe_357/jyzt_2015nztzl/2015_zt15/15zt15_mtbd/201511/t20151106_217950.html (in Chinese).
13. 城市年度数据. 国民经济核算. GDP(336). 中经网数据有限公司 [City Annual Data. National Accounts. GDP(336). Zhongjing.com Data Co]. 2024. URL: https://ceidata.cei.cn/ (in Chinese).
14. 年本科招生计划.北京理工大学 [2024 Undergraduate Admission Programme. Beijing Institute of Technology]. 2024. URL https://admission.bit.edu.cn/static/front/bit/basic/html_web/zsjh.html (in Chinese).
15. 年普通高等学校招生工作规定. 中华人民共和国教育部. [Regulations on Enrolment of Students in General Colleges and Universities in 2025. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China]. 2025.12.02. URL: http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A15/moe_776/s3258/202502/W020250219375244250249.docx (in Chinese).
16. 教育部考试中心发布《中国高考评价体系》 . 中华人民共和国教育 部 [The Ministry of Education Examination Center released the “China College Entrance Examination Evaluation System”. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China]. 2020.01.07. URL:http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/gzdt_gzdt/s5987/202001/t20200107_414611.html (in Chinese).
17. 上海两高等教育机构试水综合评价录取. 中国教育报&中华人民共和国 教育部 [Shanghai’s two higher education institutions to test the comprehensive evaluation of admission. China Education News & Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China]. 2015.27.06. URL: http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/s5147/201506/t20150629_191527.html (in Chinese).
18. 国务院关于取消非行政许可审批事项的决定. 中华人民共和国中央人民 政府 [Decision of the State Council on Cancellation of Non-Authorised Approval Matters. Central People’s Government of the People’s Republic of China] // Guo Fa. 2015. N 27. 2015.14.05. URL: https://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2015-05/14/content_9749.htm (in Chinese).
19. 关于公布世界一流大学和一流学科建设高校及建设学科名单的通 知. 教育部. 财政部. 国家发展改革委 [Notice on the Announcement of the List of Universities and Disciplines for the Construction of World-Class Universities and First-Class Disciplines. Ministry of Education. Ministry of Finance. National Development and Reform Commission] // Letter of Education and Research. 2017. N 2. 2017.20.09. URL: http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A22/moe_843/201709/t20170921_314942.html (in Chinese).
20. 年各省份高考录取分数线及招生计划情况. 北京师范大学招生办公 室 [2023 Gaokao Admission Score Line and Enrolment Plan by Province . Beijing Normal University Admissions Office]. 2023. URL: https://admission.bnu.edu.cn/zsjhlnfs/edff0e0dcd4c4919be5cbcb568d83d9d.html (in Chinese).
21. 年各省份录取分数线及本科招生计划情况. 青海大学招生办公室 [2023 Gaokao Admission Score Line and Enrolment Plan by Province . Qinghai University Admissions Office] 2023. URL: http://210.27.182.75/zscx/lqxx/#/ (in Chinese).
22. 年各省份录取分数线及本科招生计划情况. 青岛大学本科招生网 [2023 Gaokao Admission Score Line and Enrolment Plan by Province . Qingdao University Undergraduate Admissionse]. 2023. URL: https://zhaosheng.qdu.edu.cn/static/front/qdu/basic/html_web/zsjh.html (in Chinese).
23. “211工程”与“985工程”. 新华社&中华人民共和国教育部 [‘Project 211 and Project 985. Xinhua News Agency & Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China]. 2015.06.11. URL: http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/xw_zt/moe_357/jyzt_2015nztzl/2015_zt15/15zt15_mtbd/201511/t20151106_217950.html (in Chinese).
24. 城市年度数据. 国民经济核算. GDP(336). 中经网数据有限公司 [City Annual Data. National Accounts. GDP(336). Zhongjing.com Data Co]. 2024. URL: https://ceidata.cei.cn/ (in Chinese).
25. 年本科招生计划.北京理工大学 [2024 Undergraduate Admission Programme. Beijing Institute of Technology]. 2024. URL https://admission.bit.edu.cn/static/front/bit/basic/html_web/zsjh.html (in Chinese).
26. 年“中学校长实名推荐制” 推荐资质初审通过中学名单公示. 北京大学 招生办公室. 北京大学招生网 [2012 Recommendation System of Secondary School Principals by Names: Announcement of Secondary Schools Passing the Preliminary Qualification Examination of Recommendation System. Peking University Admissions Office. Peking University Admissions Website]. 2011.11.10. URL: https://www.gotopku.cn/index/detail/431.html (in Chinese).
27. 南开大学2024年本科招生公告（二） —南开大学2024年外国语言文学类 保送生拟录取结果公示. 南开大学招生办 [Nankai University 2024 Undergraduate Admission Announcement (II) — Nankai University 2024 Foreign Language and Literature Guaranteed Admission Results Announcement. Nankai University Admissions Office]. 2024.09.01. URL: https://zsb.nankai.edu.cn/2024-01-09/1669.html (in Chinese).
28. 年南开大学在各省的招生计划及近三年录取分数. 南开大学招生办 [2024 Nankai University admission plan in each province and admission scores in the last three years. Nankai University Admissions Office]. 2024.17.06. URL: https://zsb.nankai.edu.cn/baokao/fenshu.html (in Chinese).
29. 教育部推出“强基计划”， 2020年起取消高等教育机构自主招生. 中国青 年报&中华人民共和国教育部 [Ministry of Education Launches ‘Pilot Reform Program of Enrollment for Basic Subjects’, Eliminating Independent Recruitment in Higher Education Institutions from 2020. China Youth Daily & Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China]. 2020.16.01. URL: http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/s5147/202001/t20200116_415682.html (in Chinese).
30. 教育部关于在部分高校开展基础学科招生改革试点工作的意见. 中华 人民共和国教育部 [Opinions of the Ministry of Education on the Pilot Reform Programme of Enrollment for Basic Subjects in Some Universities. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China]. 2020.14.01. URL: http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A15/moe_776/s3258/202001/t20200115_415589.html (in Chinese).
31. 强基计划试点高校名单. 中华人民共和国教育部 [Pilot Reform Program of Enrollment for Basic Subjects. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China]. 2020.14.01. URL: http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A15/moe_776/s3258/202001/W020200115388920961728.docx (in Chinese).
32. 城市年度数据. 国民经济核算. GDP (336). 中经网数据有限公司 [Annual city data. National economic accounts. GDP (336). China Economic Network Data Co., Ltd.]. URL: https://ceidata.cei.cn/ (in Chinese).
33. 教育部发展规划司司长刘昌亚. 巩固拓展教育脱贫攻坚成果同乡村 振兴有效衔接和推进中小学改厕工作有关情况: 面向农村和脱贫地区实施 高校专项计划累计招生82万人.中华人民教育部新闻发布会 [Liu Changya, Director General, Department of Development Planning, Ministry of Education. Consolidating and expanding the achievements of education in poverty alleviation and rural revitalisation and promoting the work of primary and secondary school toilets: The implementation of special programmes for rural and poverty alleviation areas of colleges and universities to enrol a total of 820,000 students. People’s Republic of China Ministry of Education press conference]. 2021.29.12. URL: http://www.moe.gov.cn/fbh/live/2021/53939/mtbd/202112/t20211229_591297.html (in Chinese).
Review
For citations:
Pei Ya. Reform of the all-china state university entrance examination policy and educational inequality. Moscow State University Bulletin. Series 18. Sociology and Political Science. 2025;31(4):172-193. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.24290/1029-3736-2025-31-4-172-193
Views:
23
Email this article 